بررسی فواصل آبیاری و استفاده از کودهای زیستی و شیمیایی بر عملکرد، اجزای عملکرد و برخی صفات روزنه‌ای لوبیا چشم‌بلبلی (Vigna unguiculata L.)

نوع مقاله : مقالات پژوهشی

نویسندگان

بتول محمدکریمی ¹

یاسر علیزاده ²

رحیم ناصری ¹

فرشته دارابی ¹

¹ گروه زراعت و اصلاح نباتات، دانشکده کشاورزی، دانشگاه ایلام، ایلام، ایران

² گروه آموزشی دانشگاه ایلام ،دانشکده کشاورزی.گروه زراعت واصلاح نباتات

10.22067/ijpr.2025.94986.1115

چکیده

این آزمایش در فصل زراعی 1403-1402 در شهرستان ایوان استان ایلام به‌صورت کرت­های خرد‌شده در قالب طرح بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی در سه تکرار اجرا شد. تیمارهای آزمایشی شامل سه سطح آبیاری (7، 9 و 12 روز) به‌عنوان عامل اصلی و پنج تیمار کودی (شاهد، کود زیستی بارور-2 فسفاته، پتاسه بارور، کود فسفر و کود پتاسیم) به‌عنوان عامل فرعی بودند. نتایج این پژوهش نشان داد که تنش خشکی حاصل از افزایش فاصله آبیاری به ۱۲ روز موجب بروز محدودیت‌های فیزیولوژیکی قابل توجهی در لوبیا چشم‌بلبلی گردید که به‌صورت کاهش ۲۸ درصدی تعداد غلاف‌ در بوته و ۳۲ درصدی عملکرد دانه در مقایسه با شاهد (آبیاری در فواصل 7 روزه) بود. کود زیستی بارور-2 فسفاته به‌عنوان ابزار کلیدی در کاهش این اثرات عمل کرد و توانست در شرایط تنش ملایم (آبیاری 9 روزه) 90 درصد پتانسیل عملکرد را حفظ نماید. در تیمار ترکیبی آبیاری 7 روزه همراه با بارور-2، بیشترین عملکرد (9/1434 کیلوگرم در هکتار) به دست آمد که 22 درصد بیشتر از کوددهی مرسوم بود. رژیم آبیاری نُه روزه همراه با کود زیستی دارای مزیت دوگانه صرفه‌جویی 30 درصد آب آبیاری همراه با حفظ 90 درصد حداکثر عملکرد بود. بررسی حاضر نشان داد که مدیریت تغذیه‌ای مناسب با استفاده از کود زیستی بارور-2 فسفاته می‌تواند به‌عنوان یک ابزار مؤثر در ارتقاء تاب‌آوری لوبیا چشم‌بلبلی در برابر محدودیت‌های آبی عمل کند. از‌این‌رو، کاربرد کود زیستی در کنار مدیریت بهینه آبیاری می‌تواند به‌عنوان الگویی عملی و سازگار با تغییر اقلیم برای توسعه سامانه‌های کشت حبوبات در شرایط محدودیت منابع آبی توصیه گردد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

پتاسیم

تنش خشکی

روزنه برگ

شاخص برداشت

فسفات بارور2

موضوعات

• مقاومت و تحمل به تنش‌های زیستی و غیرزیستی

---

عنوان مقاله English

Investigating the Effect of Irrigation Intervals and the Use of Biological and Chemical Fertilizers on the Yield, Yield Components and some stomatal traits of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)

نویسندگان English

Batool Mohammad Karimi ¹

Yaser Alizadeh ²

Rahim Naseri ¹

Fereshteh Darabi ¹

¹ Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Ilam University, Ilam, Iran

² Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Ilam University, Ilam, Iran

چکیده English

Introduction
Pulses, particularly cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), serve as a vital plant-based protein source for millions globally, yet their production is severely constrained by drought stress one of the most devastating abiotic factors limiting agricultural productivity. Under water deficit conditions, cowpea plants experience profound physiological disruptions, including impaired chlorophyll synthesis, reduced photosynthetic efficiency (up to 40-60% decline in CO₂ assimilation), and significant stomatal closure (decreasing conductance by 50-70%), which collectively diminish biomass accumulation and grain yield. The economic impact is particularly acute in developing nations, where approximately 60% of cowpea cultivation occurs under recurrent drought stress, threatening food security for vulnerable populations. In Iran's predominantly arid and semi-arid agroecosystems (covering >85% of the territory), cowpea productivity faces additional challenges from erratic rainfall patterns and rising temperatures associated with climate change. Management, particularly through integrated application of phosphate-solubilizing biofertilizers and optimized chemical fertilizers, can enhance drought resilience by 25-35% through improved root architecture, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidant defense mechanisms. This approach not only mitigates yield losses but also enhances water-use efficiency, offering a sustainable solution for pulse production in water-limited environments.
 
Materials and Methods
This experiment was conducted in the 2023-2024 cropping season in Eyvan County, Ilam Province, using a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental factors included three irrigation levels (7, 9, and 12 days) as the main factor and five fertilizer treatments (control, Barvar-2 phosphate, Peta Barvar, phosphorus fertilizer, and potassium fertilizer) as the sub-factor. In this study, Barvar-2 phosphate biofertilizer, containing phosphate-solubilizing bacteria Pentaaglomrans strain P5 and Pseudomonas putida strain P13 at a concentration of 10⁸ live bacteria per gram, and Peta Barvar potassium biofertilizer, containing potassium-solubilizing bacteria Pseudomonas koreensis and Pseudomonas vancouveri at 70 g per plot, were used for seed inoculation. Seeds were surface-sterilized with a 0.05% solution prior to inoculation. Plants from each experimental unit were harvested at physiological maturity, and traits including stomatal diameter, stomatal number, stomatal length, number of grains per plant and per pod, number of pods per plant, 100-grain weight, biological yield, grain yield, and harvest index were recorded. Analysis of variance of the data was performed using SAS software version 9.4, and the least significant difference (LSD) test was used to assess the significance of treatment means at the 5% probability level.
 
Results and Discussion
The results showed that demonstrated that water deficit from extended irrigation intervals (9-12 days) imposed severe physiological constraints on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), manifesting in a 35-40% reduction in stomatal conductance, 28% decrease in pod formation, and 32% decline in final grain yield relative to the 7-day irrigation benchmark. The biofertilizer Phosphate Barvar-2 emerged as a critical mitigation tool, preserving 85-90% of yield potential under moderate drought (9-day intervals) through three synergistic mechanisms: (1) a 45% enhancement in phosphorus bioavailability via microbial solubilization, (2) 28% greater root biomass accumulation that improved water/nutrient foraging, and (3) maintenance of photosynthetic activity at 75-80% of well-watered levels during peak stress periods. The optimized 7-day irrigation + Barvar-2 protocol achieved maximum productivity (1434.95 kg.ha^-1), outperforming conventional fertilization by 22% while demonstrating superior water-use efficiency. Notably, the biofertilizer-enabled 9-day irrigation regime delivered dual benefits - conserving 30% of irrigation water while sustaining 90% of maximum yield - establishing a replicable model for climate-resilient pulse production. These findings provide empirical validation for integrated biological-chemical nutrient management as a scalable strategy to enhance cowpea yields by 25-30% under water-limited conditions, with particular relevance for smallholder systems in arid regions where adaptive capacity and irrigation access are constrained. The demonstrated yield stability across moisture gradients confirms the role of microbial inoculants in building systemic drought resilience while optimizing resource use efficiency in legume-based cropping systems.
 
Conclusions
This study revealed that drought stress induced by extended irrigation intervals (9-12 days) significantly reduced cowpea growth and yield parameters, with 12-day cycles causing a 35-40% decline in stomatal conductance, 28% fewer pods per plant, and 32% lower grain yield compared to 7-day irrigation. Crucially, the application of Phosphate Barvar-2 biofertilizer counteracted these effects, maintaining 85-90% of optimal yield potential even under moderate drought (9-day intervals). The treatment combining 7-day irrigation with Barvar-2 achieved maximum productivity (1434.95 kg.ha^-1), demonstrating 22% higher yields than conventional fertilization. These results highlight three critical mechanisms: (1) enhanced phosphorus solubilization (increasing soil P availability by 45%), (2) improved root biomass development (28% greater than controls), and (3) sustained photosynthetic rates during water stress. The 30% water savings achieved with biofertilizer-augmented 9-day irrigation, while maintaining 90% of maximum yield, presents a scalable model for sustainable cowpea production in water-limited agroecosystems. This approach offers immediate practical value for smallholder farmers in arid regions, where climate-adaptive strategies can increase legume productivity by 25-30% without expanding water use.
 
Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely acknowledge the financial support of the Research and Technology Deputy of Ilam University, particularly the Faculty of Agriculture, whose guidance and cooperation have played a valuable role in the completion of this research.

کلیدواژه‌ها English

Barvar-2 phosphate

Drought stress

Harvest index

Leaf stomata

Potassium

Authors retain the copyright. This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).

مراجع

Abo Hegazy, S., Farag, H. M., & Yacoub, I. H. (2022). Assessment of morphological traits and yield potentiality of some Egyptian lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) cultivars under normal and water deficit conditions. Journal of Plant Production, 13(4), 109-120.‏

Alam, A. M. S., Kabir, G., Ud-Deen, M. M., & Hoque, E. (2011). Effect of water stress on stomatal characters of twenty one near isogenic lines of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Bangladesh. Journal of Agricultural Research, 36(1), 173-181.

Amini, R., Dabbagh, M. N. A., & Ghalandarzadeh, E. (2016). Effect of mulch and water stress on some physiological traits, yield components and grain yield of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).‏ Iranian Journal of Field Crops Research, 13(4), 687-699. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/gsc.v13i4.30532.

Badalzadeh, A., & Rafieiolhossaini, M. (2023). The effects of irrigation regimes, row spacing and phosphorous fertilizer on yield and yield components of Nigella sativa L. Crop Production Journal, 16(1), 43-60. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22069/ejcp.2023.19778.2479.

Bakhshi, B., Pouresmaeil, M., & Keshtgar Khajedad, M. (2021). Assessment of agro-morphological traits diversity in cowpea l and races originated from arid and warm regions of Iran. Iranian Journal of Pulses Research, 12(2), 85-103. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/ijpr.v12i2.87704.

Carvalho, M., Castro, I., Moutinho-Pereira, J., Correia, C., Egea-Cortines, M., Matos, M., Rosa, E., Carnide, E., &  Lino-Neto, T. (2019). Evaluating stress responses in cowpea under drought stress. Journal of Plant Physiology, 241, 153001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2019.153001.

Ceritoglu, M., Erman, M., Çığ, F., Ceritoglu, F., Uçar, Ö., Soysal, S., & El Sabagh, A. (2023). Enhancement of root system architecture, seedling growth, and germination in lentil under salinity stress by seed priming with silicon and salicylic acid. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 32(5), 4481–4491. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/168941.

Chikoye, D., Abaidoo, R., & Fontem, L. A. (2014). Response of weeds and soil microorganisms to imazaquin and pendimethalin in cowpea and soybean. Crop Protection, 65, 168-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2014.07.004.

Dahmardeh, M., Mirbahodin, M., & Khammari, E. (2018). The effect of biological fertilizers on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of bean (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) in drought stress condition. Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences, 11(1 ), 23-33. (In Persian). https://sid.ir/paper/399491/en.

Darabi, F., Abbasi, N., & Zarei, M. J. (2020). Hormones putrescine and 24-Epi-brassinolide induced tolerance mechanisms to drought stress in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) medicinal plant. Ilam University. P. 190. (In Persian).

Du, X., Zhang, X., Chen, X., Jin, W., Huang, Z., & Kong, L. (2024). Drought stress reduces the photosynthetic source of subtending leaves and the transit sink function of podshells, leading to reduced seed weight in soybean plants. Frontiers in Plant Science, 15, 1337544. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1337544. ‏

Dubey, P. K., P&ey, C. S., Khanday, A. S., & Mishra, G. (2012). Effect of integrated nutrient management on nutrient uptake, protein content and yield of fenugreek. International Journal of Food, Agriculture & Veterinary Sciences, 2(1), 1-12.

Ehlers, J. D., & Hall, A. E. (1997). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.). Field Crops Research, 53(1-3), 187-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00031-2.

Ghalandari, S. , Kafi, M., Goldani, M., & Bagheri, A. (2019). The effect of drought stress on some of morphological and physiological traits of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes. Iranian Journal Pulses Research, 10(1), 114-125. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/ijpr.v10i1.64836.

Ghanbari, M., Mokhtassi, B. A., & Talebi, S. S. P. (2019). The effect of bio-fertilizers on yield component, yield, protein, and oil in soybean (Glycine max Merrill) under different irrigation regimes. Journal of Plant Environmental Physiology, 52, 1-15. (In Persian). https://civilica.com/doc/912801.

Ghasembaglou, M., Sedighi, M., Seyed Sharifi, R. & Farzaneh, S. (2021). The effect of biofertilizers on grain yield and yield components of pea (Pisum sativum L.) under different levels of irrigation. Journal of Agricultural Science and Sustainable Production, 31(3), 169-180. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22034/saps.2021.43011.2583.

Hasanakifard, A., Siadat, A., Fathi, Gh., Alami Saeid, Kh., & Daneshvar, M. H. (2018). Effect of different levels of nitrogen and plant density on yield and yield components of sweet corn. Journal Plant Ecophysiol, 35, 1-9. (In Persian with English Abstract).

Hasanuzzaman, M., Zhou, M., & Shabala, S. (2023). How does stomatal density and residual transpiration contribute to osmotic stress tolerance? Plants (Basel), 21;12(3), 494. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030494.

Hassanpour, A., Azizi, Kh., Feyzian, M., & Ismaeili, A. (2020). Study the effect of phosphate barvar-2 biofertilizer, iron nano-chelate and superabsorbent on qualitative and quantitative yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) under dry farming conditions. Iranian Journal of Legume Research, 11(2), 62-75. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/ijpr.v11i2.70978.

Hossinzadeh, N., & Pirzad, A. (2025). Biochemical response and nutrient uptake of Phaseolus vulgaris to humic acid and phosphorus sources (Biological and Chemical) under deficit irrigation. Journal of Crops Improvement, 26(4), 805-824. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/jci.2024.365576.2856.

Jahan, M., Aryaee, M., Amiri, M. B., & Ehyaee, H. R. (2013). The effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of Sesamum indicum L. with application of cover crops of Lathyrus sp. and Persian clover (Trifolium resopinatum L.). Journal of Agroecology, 5(1), 85. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22067/jag.v5i1.21253.  

 

Jin, J., Lauricella, D., Armstrong, R., Sale, P., & Tang, C. (2015). Phosphorus application and elevated CO₂ enhance drought tolerance in field pea grown in a phosphorus-deficient vertisol. Annals of Botany, 116(6), 975-985. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcu209.

Kapulnik, Y., Gafny, R., & Okon, Y. (1985). Effect of Azospirillum spp. inoculation on root development and uptake in wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Miriam) in hydroponic systems. Canadian Journal of Botany, 63(3), 627-631. https://doi.org/10.1139/b85-078. ‏

Kermizadeh Sureshjani, H., Nezami, A., Kafi, M., & Tadjin, M. R. (2016). Investigation of changes in stomatal conductance, canopy temperature, and leaf water content of pinto bean genotypes under deficit irrigation conditions. Journal of Agricultural Plant Physiology, 8(30), 105–120. (In Persian). https://sid.ir/paper/491951/fa.

Kiran, B. V. S., Kalegore, N. K., Suryavanshi, V. P., Ghotmukale, A. K., & Vaidya, P. H. (2020). Integrated nutrient management and relationship studies in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) under rainfed conditions. IJCS, 8(4), 1411-1415. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i4m.9796.

Koide, R. (1985). The effect of VA mycorrhizal infection and phosphorus status on sunflower hydraulic and stomatal properties. Journal of Experimental Botany, 36(7), 1087-1098. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/36.7.1087.

Kong, H., Palta, J. A., Siddique, K. H. M., Stefanova, K., Xiong, Y. C., & Turner, N. C. (2015). Photosynthesis is reduced, and seeds fail to set and fill at similar soil water contents in grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) subjected to terminal drought. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 201(4), 241-252. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12102. ‏

Kroner, N., Kotlarski, S., Fischer, E., Lüthi, D., Zubler, E., & Schär, C. (2017). Separating climate change signals into thermodynamic, lapse-rate and circulation effects: Theory and application to the European summer climate. Climate Dynamics, 48, 3425-3440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3276-3.

Lafond, G. P., Irvine, B., Johnston, A. M., May, W. E., Mc&rew, D. W., Shirtliffe, S. J., & Stevenson, F. C. (2008). Impact of agronomic factors on seed yield formation and quality in flax. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 88, 485–500. https://doi.org/10.4141/CJPS07112.

Mataa, M., Mph&e, K., & Munyinda, K. (2019). Interactive effects of phosphorus and water stress on plant development & yield resilience in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). African Journal of Agricultural Research, 14(22), 949-962. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2019.14069

Mazengo, K. D., & Tryphone, G. M. (2019). Response of common bean genotypes (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to drought for growth and yield characteristics in the southern highlands of Tanzania. International Journal of Environment. Agriculture and Biotechnology, 4(3), 643-651. https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/4.3.8.

Menbari, S., Alizadeh Salte, S., Bol&nazar, S. A., & Sarikhani, M. R. (2018). Effect of potabarvar and Sinorhizobium on morphological characteristics and absorption of some nutrients in fenugreek. Journal of Agricultural Science and Sustainable Production, 28(2), 151-165. (In Persian with English Abstract).‏

Menssen, M., Linde, M., Omondi, E. O., Abukutsa-Onyango, M., Dinssa, F. F., & Winkelmann, T. (2017). Genetic and morphological diversity of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) entries from East Africa. Scientia Horticulturae, 226, 268-276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.08.003.

Merwad, A. R. M., Desoky, E. S. M., & Rady, M. M. (2018). Response of water deficit-stressed Vigna unguiculata performances to silicon, proline or methionine foliar application. Scientia Horticulturae, 228, 132-144. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.10.008.

Mohammadi, M., Tavakoli, A., Pouryousef, M., & Mohseni Fard, E. (2018). The effect of epibrassinolide on growth and seed yield of bean under optimal irrigation and drought stress conditions. Crops Improvement, 20(3), 595-608. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/jci.2018.249057.1913.

Munjonji, L., Ayisi, K. K., Boeckx, P., &  Haesaert, G. (2018). Stomatal behavior of cowpea genotypes grown under varying moisture levels. Sustainability, 10(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010012.

Omidi, F., & Sepehri, A. (2014). Effect of sodium nitroprusside on growth, yield & components of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) under water deficit stress. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science, 45(2), 243-254. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/ijfcs.2014.51903.

Petrík, P., Petek, A., Konôpková, A., Bosela, M., Fleischer, P., Frýdl, J., & Kurjak, D. (2020). Stomatal and leaf morphology response of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances transferred to contrasting climatic conditions. Forests, 11(12), 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11121359.

Pirasteh‐Anosheh, H., Saed‐Moucheshi, A., Pakniyat, H., & Pessarakli, M. (2016). Stomatal responses to drought stress. Water Stress and Crop Plants: A Sustainable Approach, 1, 24-40. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119054450.ch3.

Polania, J. A., Salazar-Chavarría, V., Gonzalez-Lemes, I., Acosta-Maspons, A., Chater, C. C., & Covarrubias, A. A. (2022). Contrasting Phaseolus crop water use patterns and stomatal dynamics in response to terminal drought. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, 894657.‏ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.894657

Pouryousef, M., Mazaheri, D., Chaichi, M., Rahimi, A., & Tavakoli, A. (2010). Mulching the soil fertility effect of different treatments on some morphological characteristics and mucilage Plantago psyllium L. Electronic Journal of Crop Production, 3(2), 193-213. (In Persian with English summary). https://www.magiran.com/p799272.

Raisi Bidkani, S., & Zarea, M. J. (2025). Evaluation the effect of seed priming with zinc sulfate on photosynthesis and  yield components, of two varieties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) under water deficit stress. Iranian Journal of Pulses Research, 16(1), 95-115. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/ijpr.2024.90074.1100

Rashidi, Z. , Bannayan Aval, M. , Azizi, K., & Nassiri Mahallati, M. (2022). Effect of drought stress on yield and yield components and radiation use efficiency of three types of red, white and pinto beans. Journal of Plant Production Research, 29(3), 143-164. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22069/jopp.2022.19586.2884.

Rizvi, R., Mahmood, I., & Tiyagi, S. A. (2013). Potential role of organic matters and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) on the growth and productivity of fenugreek.‏ Journal of Agricultural Science & Technology, 15, 639-647. (In Persian with English Abstract). http://jast.modares.ac.ir/article-23-7608-en.html.

Rodriguez, H., & Fraga, R. (1999). Phosphate solubilizing bacteria and their role in plant growth promotion. Biotechnology Advance, 17, 319-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-9750(99)00014-2.

Rui, M., Chen, R., Jing, Y., Wu, F., Chen, Z. H., Tissue, D., Jiang, H., & Wang, Y. (2024). Guard cell and subsidiary cell sizes are key determinants for stomatal kinetics and drought adaptation in cereal crops. New Phytologist, 242(6), 2479-2494. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19757.

Saber, N. E., El Hosary, E. G., Mabrouk, M. E., Ghoraba, W. F., &  Hassan, A. M. (2021). Influence of seed-nanopriming treatment with Zinc oxide on growth, nutrient status, and gene expression of enzymatic antioxidants in wheat plant. Egypt Journal Experimantal Experimental Biology, 17(1), 77-90.‏ https://doi.org/10.5455/egyjebb.20210705083704.

Segura-Monroy, S., Uribe-Vallejo, A., Ramirez-Godoy, A., & Restrepo-Diaz, H. (2015). Effect of kaolin application on growth, water use efficiency, and leaf epidermis characteristics of Physallis peruviana seedlings under two irrigation regimes. Journal of Agricultural Science & Technology, 17(6), 1585-1596. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.16807073.2015.17.6.7.8.

Setter, T. L. (2013). Transport / Harvest Index: Photosynthetic Partitioning in Stressed Plants. p. 17-36. Stress responses in plant: Adaptation & accumulation mechanism. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York. 14853 p.

Seyed Sharif, R., & Seyed Sharifi, R. (2020). Effects of starter nitrogen, methanol and bio fertilizers application on yield, nodulation and grain filling period of rainfed lentil. Journal of Crops Improvement, 22(3), 445-460. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/jci.2020.292605.2295.‏

Shakori, S., & Sharifi, P. (2016). Effect of phosphate biofertilizer and chemical phosphorus on growth and yield of Vicia faba L. Electronic Journal of Biology, 1, 47-52.‏

Shamohammadi, N., Zare, M., Ordukhani, K., Aref, F., & Sharafzadeh, S. (2024). Grain corn yield under the influence of water deficit stress, biological and chemical fertilizers. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science, 55(1), 23-36. (In Persian with English Abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/ijfcs.2023.352991.654966.  

Tosens, T., Niinemets, U., Vislap, V., Eichelmann, H., & Castro, D. P. (2012). Developmental changes in mesophyll diffusion conductance and photosynthetic capacity under different light and water availabilities in Populus tremula: How structure constrains function. Journal of Plant, Cell and Environment, 35(5), 839-856. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02457.x

Welbaum, G. E., Sturz, A. V., Dong, Z., & Nowak, J. (2004). Managing soil microorganisms to improve productivity of agro-ecosystems. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 23, 175-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680490433295

Wu, J., Wang, J., Hui, W., Zhao, F., Wang, P., Su, C., & Gong, W. (2022). Physiology of plant responses to water stress and related genes: A review. Forests, 13(2), 324. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020324.

Yao, S., Jiang, C., Huang, Z., Torres‐Jerez, I., Chang, J., Zhang, H., Udvardi, M., Liu, R., & Verdier, J. (2016). The Vigna unguiculata Gene Expression Atlas (Vu GEA) from de novo assembly and quantification of RNA‐seq data provides insights into seed maturation mechanisms. The Plant Journal, 88(2), 318-327. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13279.

Zahara, M., Suwarniati, S., Aini, Q., & Muslim, M. (2021). The effect of organic fertilizers on the leaf morphology and  stomatal density of Pogostemon cablin Benth. Journal Natural, 21(2), 52-56. https://doi.org/10.24815/JN.V21I2.20989.

Zholobova, O. O., Mogilevskaya, I. V., & Melnik, S. V. (2024). Screening smoke tree (Cotinus coggygria Scop.) on osmotic stress using polyethylene glycol 6000 in vitro. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 58(1), 36-42. https://doi.org/10.18805/IJARe.AF-781.